Essay/Term paper: Why are individuals aggressive?

Essay, term paper, research paper:  Social Issues

Why Are Individuals Aggressive?

Aggression is difficult to define, it is a complex phenomenon, and depending
upon the context the term can be made to carry either positive or negative
connotations, it can be attacking behaviour that may be either self-protective
and self-assertive or to the infliction of injury toward oneself or toward
others, to the total destruction of others. Is aggression biological determined
or the product of learning and environmental influences.? This essay, will
consider instinctive theory, the frustration - aggression hypothesis, and social
learning theory. It should then be possible to draw a conclusion to see if any
or all of the theories discussed are the cause of aggression. Brain disorders,
hormonal and chemical imbalances, environmental factors, such as heat, noise,
air pollution and overcrowding, although contribute to the causes of aggression
will not be discussed during the course of this essay. No universally adopted
definition of aggression exists, for the purpose of this discussion, the
definition of Gross will be used.

Gross defines aggression as :-"The intentional infliction of some form of harm
on others" (Gross page 444)

Freud proposed that aggression is an instinctive biological urge. According to
Freud this instinct, is made up of the libido (pleasure) and "Thanatos" (the
death wish) (pain). This basic instinct is present in the Id from birth, at
first the aggression is relatively uncontrolled, but with the development of the
Ego and superego it becomes channelled into socially acceptable behaviour If
these impulses are not released periodically in safe ways, they soon reach
dangerous levels capable of producing acts of violence. Sometimes it is
released in the form of physical or verbal abuse against another, (where the
anger is displaced onto another). Sometimes the aggressive impulse is turned
inward and produces self - punishment action, even suicide. The best that can
be hoped for, according to Freud, is that aggressive impulses will be
"channelled into socially acceptable forms." such as football, sport etc.
(Bernstein et al page 715). However, this theory does not explain why some
people are aggressive and others are not, and if aggression is dissipated into
sport, why is there football violence and violence at other sporting events?

Lorenz, like Freud believed that aggressive energy builds up in the individual,
and eventually has to be discharged in some way. Lorenz's states that
aggression is the "fighting instinct" in man, and that man is naturally
aggressive. This instinct developed during the course of evolution because it
yielded many benefits, for example, fighting serves to disperse populations over
a wide area, ensuring maximum use of resources. "Such behaviour often helps to
strengthen genetic make-up of a species by assuring that only the strongest
individuals manage to reproduce", ( Baron/Byrne page 328) This fighting
instinct is both present in man and animals, and that aggression in animals is
do with 'Ritualization and appeasement' and through these rituals and series of
appeasements animals avoid destroying each other, but aggression in humans, is
'no longer under the control of rituals, and it has become distorted in man"
(Gross page 445). However nearly all the evidence of Lorenz's theory comes from
research with animals, and many psychologist "doubt whether the results apply
to humans, because in the animal world instinct plays a more significant role
than with humans". ( Berstein et al page 716). Further It is generally agreed
by looking at present day Eskimos, Pygmies, and Aborigines, that man is a
'hunter - gatherer'. and that there is a powerful human tendency to cooperate
which is a legacy from our ancient hunting past, when we had to co-operate or
starve. People then lived in small tribal groups, were warfare did not exists,
there were no armies, and if conflict did occur, from time to time, casualties
would be avoided or limited. Mead argues that man is "not naturally aggressive"
and points out many societies, such as the Apraesh of New Guinea where
'aggression is rare, and "peaceful coexistence and cooperation is the norm"
(Bernstein page 715) Megargee (1966) , supported the theories of Freud and
Lorenz, Megargee reported that studies of "people who commit brutal aggressive
crimes, are often over-controlled individuals, who repress the anger and over a
period of time the pressure to be aggressive builds up". (Gross page 450).
Support for instinct theory has also come from Psychologist who study serial
killers, they believe that there is genetic pre-disposition to be aggressive,
and combined together with other factors, can aggravate a pre-disposition to
violent aggressive behaviour. The psychologist also pointed out, that more
evidence for this theory comes from studies of twins reared together or apart,
which suggest that there may be a genetic link to aggression in humans. (Channel
4 Television ).

Other psychologist emphasised frustration as a potent cause of why individuals
are aggressive. Dollard and Miller developed a "frustration - aggressive
hypothesis" they put forward the view that aggression was an inevitable
consequence of frustration. The 'occurrence of aggressive behaviour always
presupposes the existence of frustration and the existence of frustration always
leads to some form of aggression' If an individual is prevented from reaching
a goal, they are frustrated by not getting something they want, or suffers
"deprivation" where something they want is taken away from them, they will
experience an increase in aggression. (Hardy/Heyes page 171) This view has been
criticized, psychologist point out that it does not explain aggressive behaviour
in all circumstances. Frustrated individuals do not always respond with
aggressive action, they may show "resignation and despair" (Baron/Byrne page
329), and there are many occasions when aggressive behaviour can be explained
more by a breakdown in social norms.

Berkowitz suggested "external conditions, serve to arouse a strong motive to
engage in harm producing behaviour," (Baron/Byrne page 329) and that frustration
produces not aggression, but a "readiness to respond aggressively". Once this
readiness exists, cues in the environment, that are associated with aggression,
will often lead a frustrated person to behave aggressively. "Cues such as guns,
knives, violent television scenes. Neither the frustration alone or the cues
alone are sufficient to set off aggression, but when combined however, they do."
Berkowitz went on to say that "unexpected failure at some task tends to create
a more intense negative reaction then a failure that is expected". Support for
Berkowitz theory is very strong. Studies have found that "frustration may
facilitate aggression. and experiments have supported this". (Berstein et al
page 718) On the other hand, several experiments have reported that frustration
sometimes may actually tend to reduce the level of aggression shown by the
individual. Existing evidence points to the conclusion that whether frustration
increases or fails to enhance aggression, depends on whether the frustration is
intense and whether the aggression is seen as 'just' or 'illegitimate'. However,
few researchers currently hold the view that "frustration always leads to
aggression", frustration is simply one of many different causes of aggression
(Baron/Byrne page 329)

When you look at the frustration hypothesis, it seems that practically any
incident of aggression can be ascribed to frustration of acquisitiveness or
"assertiveness. Gentry 1970 said that "frustration does not always produce
aggression, sometimes it produces depression and withdrawal, and not all
aggression is preceded by frustration" ( Berstein et al page 718) According to
Leaky and Lewis (1977), "cultural influences are far more important determinants
of human aggression than biological factors." Any potential for aggression that
man has, is "culturally overridden and re-packaged into behaviour which fits
current circumstances. In most cases, cultural forces teach or support non-
aggression, but when pro-social aggression is necessary (disciplining children,
and wrong doers,) cultural process teach and sustain it". (Gross page 446)

Bandura, Baron, and Zillmann argue that aggressive behaviour is a "learned form
of social behaviour, acquired and maintained" in much the same manner as other
forms of social activity. (Baron/Byrne page 362) Elicitors of aggression such
as personal insults, status threats, and the presence of weapons are all learned
sources of aggressive behaviour. Many responses are learned by watching others,
further, aggressive actions are often followed by rewards and are therefore
likely to be repeated. Bandura said that children were capable of learning
aggressive behaviour as a result of being exposed to it, because children tend
to imitate what they see. Bandura exposed school children to a film of an adult
behaving aggressively toward an inflated doll, ( "Bobo Doll ") Following
exposure the children tended to imitate the aggressive behaviour. These finding,
Bandura believed, showed that young children learn to be aggressive against
others, and that aggressive acts would be imitated. In contrast, critics
pointed out, Bandura's experiments were too artificial, that the Bobo Doll was
designed specifically to be hit and that the children were aware of this, so
maybe they were just expressing the behaviour that was expected of them.
Although Bandura was has been criticized, his findings has led to considerable
research into the influence of violence in the mass media, especially
television, on promoting aggressive behaviour, and there is a growing body of
research evidence which indicates that watching violent television is linked to
increased tendencies towards subsequent aggression.

Support for the modelling and imitation theory comes from Patterson (1976) who
found that "aggressive behaviour is frequently reinforced in the home".
(Biechker/Hudson page 415) A young child who finds that anger and aggression
are more effective in gaining what they want and which can enable them to
control resources such as toys and parental attention, is having his aggression
reinforced. Further, "aggressive parents who discipline with physical force act
as models for their children and are likely to encourage aggression in their
children towards other people" (Hardy/Heyes page 163). Children learn aggression
by observing others behave aggressively, and this is supported by a recent
national survey by the N.C.H. Action For Children which found that in families
where there has been domestic violence, children imitate the aggression they
witness between their parents, and "33 per cent of children in homes where the
father was violent, became aggressive towards their mothers themselves". (The
Guardian Newspaper).

To summarise, ethologists treat aggression as an evolutionary determined
instinct, which was necessary for survival. The frustration-aggression model
looks beyond the individual, seeing the tension as being triggered by factors in
the environment which prevent the individuals attempts to reach a goal. Both
the instinctive and the frustration -aggression models suggest that it is
something about the individuals psychological make-up which causes aggression,
and individual aggressive impulses are triggered by personality dynamics, such
as ego, need or frustration, and in which the aggressive drives/impulses build
up, and must be dissipated in some way. On the other hand, Social learning
theorist view aggressive acts as responses learned through observations and
imitation of others and by positive reinforcement for the behaviour. Also, mans
cultural heritage and his experience of socialization, and the many traits or
characteristics possed by the individual is an important factor in determining
his aggressive behaviour.

In conclusion,, the reason as to why the individual is aggressive, has many
possible sources. It has been suggested that aggression springs from basic
drives. However, there is little evidence that supports the catharsis view, that
aggression depends on a build up of energy which must be released in some way.
On the other hand, there is a large body of research evidence that supports the
view that exposure to aggressive models can stimulate similar behaviour among
observers. People who behave aggressively act as aggressive models, and through
such action can influence others to act in a similar manner. So it can be seen,
that there are views that point towards a pre-disposition towards aggression,
while others would indicate either frustration, or a learned form of behaviour
as to the cause of aggression. It is proposed, that it is more likely that an
individual will be aggressive if all of these criteria are met to some degree or
other, however, the greater emphasis should be placed upon learnt behaviour. It
would seem strange if we, unlike all other mammals, were not genetically
equipped to defend ourselves or our children when under attack, and it would be
surprising if we lacked the urge to assert ourselves to some degree in
competitive social situations. However, the claim that for man all is learned
and nothing is genetically inherited, gives the impression that society can be
moulded into any shape and a human being is merely a blank canvas in which
anything could be written upon.. In answer to the question, why are individuals
aggressive? It is clear that there is no single cause as to why an individual
is aggressive, many factors contribute to the occurrence of aggression. and that
aggressive behaviour has multiple, interlinked causes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baron,RA, and Byrne, D, Social Psychology,

Bernstein, D.A., et al International Student Edition, Houghton Miffin Company
1991, 3rd Edition

Biechler, RF, and Hudson, L.M, Developmental Psychology, Longman Inc. 1972

Dobson, CB, et al, Understanding Psychology, Butler & Tanner Ltd 1993

Gregory,RL, The Oxford Companion to the Mind, Oxford University Press 1987

Gross

Hardy, M, and Heyes, S, Beginning Psychology 3rd edition Butler & Tanner 1987

Mussen, P, et al, Psychology An Introduction, Heath & Company 1973

Channel 4 Television , To Kill and Kill Again, A Scientific Analysis of Serial
Killers, January 4th 1995

The Guardian Newspaper, Violent Children, Tuesday January 24th 1995